Myelography

Indication:

• Largely superseeded by CT and MRI
• It is used in patients in whom MRI are contraindicated
• To screen whole spinal cord and cauda equina for compressive and expanding lesions
• To visualise roots
• To diagose spinal vasculature abnormalities

Complications:

• Headache after 24hrs
• Low back ache
• Herniation of the posterior cranial fossa contents in cases of raised intracranial tension
• Hemorrhage in cases of traumatic Lumbar puncture while injecting dye
• Spinal arachnoiditis
• acute deterioration if there is compressive lesion Direct neurotoxicity like seizures,encephalopathy but resolves in 48hrs
• allergy to contrast

NEET/CET

As for i can understand this pattern is a better one.The exam is an National Eligibility /Entrance Test.It aims at admitting candidates all over india to colleges all over india through single ranking system and also rising the standard of the candidates admitted.This system has its own advantages and disadvantages

Advantages:

• For Under Graduates Exam:

1.  The most important advantage is there is an equal possibility for every candidate to get admitted to all colleges all over india and the standard is also rised
2. The number of seats is increased.
3. The syllabus is only one if ther is only one exam country wide so there is no confusion for the candidate in preparation 

• For Post Graduates  Exam:

1.  Same advantages as for under graduates

Disadvantages:

• For Under Graduates Exam:

1. Large proportion of the students are taught in there respective state board syllabus but this exam is based on the CBSE syllabus which makes it difficult for those students.
2. Some of the students who are not exposed to using computers may face practical difficulty during exams

• For Post  Graduates Exam:

1. i feel there is no prob.....

UG exam syllabus is in link http://www.mciindia.org/ but pattern and model question paper is yet to be published.. kindly share ur views through comments

Kidney

They are normally two in the human body, placed on either side of the vertebral column in the lumbar region.The blood supply is via renal vessels originating from the descending aorta at the level of L1.It regulates  its function mainly through the renin angiotensin system.The main function is excretion of the waste and harmful metabolites from the blood.The functional unit is nephrons.There are about 2.4 million nephrons totally. the nephrons join the collecting duct which in turn drains into the renal calyces which opens into renal pelvis that continues as the ureter.They retro peritonial organs.


Functions:

• Maintain the fluid-electrolyte balance in the body
• Excretion of the toxic metabolites
• drug metabolisation
• Erythropoiesis through erythropoietin

Pathologies:(common)

Polycystic disease

• Polycystic disease

• Nephrotic syndrome
• glomerular nephitis
• renal stones
• renal failure
• renal cell carcinoma

Cancer

It is a lethal disease that commonly occurs in an elderly individual.. can also occur in children also.. In old age a wide variety of organs are affected like lung,liver,pancreas,bladder,prostate,female genital tract,colon,stomach,blood and brain but in children leukemia is the most common one..The cause is mainly genetic mutation,life style etc.But the most common cause in elderly is lifestyle,chronic diseases,radiation,infection etc.In children the most common cause is genetic mutation..
The patient may be asymptomatic initially but later non specific symptoms may occur like swelling, loss of weight, non healing ulcers.
Metastasis:
spread of cancerous cells occur in many patients and it is called metastasis.It occurs by

• Local spread
• Lymphatic spread
• Hematogenous spread 

Management:

•  main stay of management includes chemotherapy and radiotherapy
• surgical removal of the tumour/lesion area giving a tumour free margin is done in many cases
• In cases of advanced conditions and very elderly patients supportive management is done 

Cytokines-functions

1. Immunity                 : IL-1,IL-6,Interferon gamma,TNF-alpha,IL-12
2. Lymphocyte growth: IL-2,IL-4,IL-12,IL-15,TGF-beta,IL10
3. Chemotaxis             : C-C(T cells) & C-X-C (macrophages & tissue cells)
4. Stimulate Hematopoiesis through c-kit,GM-CSF,G-CSF

                           

B-Cell Lineage

In the order of  maturation....

• Hemopoeitic stem cell -CD 34+
• Pro-B cells- CD10,CD19,CD34,CD79a& Tdt +
• Pre B cell -CD19, CD 79a
• Immature B cell CD19,CD20,CD21,CD22,CD79a & surface IgM
• Mature B cell CD19,CD20,CD21,CD22,CD79a, sIgm, sIgD
• Plasma cells CD 20,CD21,CD 22,CD23,CD38,BCL-6
• Memory cells CD20,CD21,CD22,CD23 BCL-6

MHC Class II

• Encoded in regions HLA-D which has 3 sub regions HLA-DR ,HLA-DP &HLA-DQ
• Antigen binding cleft is alpha1 and beta 1 domains
• Bind to exogenous antigens
• Recognised only by CD4+T cells
• Distribution restricted to Antigen presenting cells namely macrophages,dendritic cells and beta cells
• Expression by other cells especially endothelial cells and fibroblasts can be induced by Interferon gamma

MHC Class I

• Antigen binding cleft alpha 1&2 domains
• present in all nucleated cells and platelets
• encoded by HLA-A,HLA-B & HLA-C
• Bind and display peptide that are derived from proteins such as viral antigens synthesised within the cells
• recognised only by CD8+T cells
• Has an extensive tissue distribution.

Major histocompatablity complex(MHC}

They are essential for the T-cell function through the antigen presenting cells.They encoded in the genes in the short arm of chromosome 6..They are also known as HLA since they were first isolated from Leukocytes.They are classified into Class I ,Class II &Class III. Class I & II are involved in antigen presentation while Class III is involved in complement fixation.